Models of Consumer Decision Making: Howard-Sheth and EKB Models

To capture the complex interplay of psychological, social, and commercial variables influencing consumer decisions, marketing scholars constructed comprehensive Integrative Consumer Behavior Models.

Among the most respected and frequently examined frameworks are the Howard-Sheth Model and the Engel-Kollat-Blackwell (EKB) Model.

1. The Howard-Sheth Model of Consumer Behavior

Introduced in 1969 by John Howard and Jagdish Sheth, this comprehensive model explains brand choice over time under conditions of incomplete information.

The model is structured around four major sets of variables:

   ┌────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
   │ 1. INPUT VARIABLES (Stimuli)                           │
   │    • Significative Stimuli (Actual physical product)   │
   │    • Symbolic Stimuli (Advertisements, brand imagery)  │
   │    • Social Stimuli (Family, reference groups, class)  │
   └───────────────────────────┬────────────────────────────┘
                               │
                               ▼
   ┌────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
   │ 2. PERCEPTUAL & LEARNING CONSTRUCTS (Internal Engine)  │
   │    • Perceptual: Perceptual bias, stimulus ambiguity   │
   │    • Learning: Motives, criteria, brand comprehension, │
   │      confidence, intention, satisfaction               │
   └───────────────────────────┬────────────────────────────┘
                               │
                               ▼
   ┌────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
   │ 3. OUTPUT VARIABLES (Observable Behaviors)             │
   │    Attention ──> Brand Comprehension ──> Attitude      │
   │    ──> Intention ──> Actual Purchase                   │
   └────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘
                 ▲                              │
                 └──────── Feedback Loop ───────┘

A. Input Variables (Environmental Stimuli)

1. Significative Stimuli: Physical, tangible attributes of the product (price, quality, features, availability) that the consumer observes directly.
2. Symbolic Stimuli: Linguistic or visual representations generated by marketers in advertising, packaging, and sales promotions.
3. Social Stimuli: Words and influences from the consumer’s family, peers, social class, and culture.

B. Perceptual and Learning Constructs (The “Black Box”)

• Perceptual Constructs: How the consumer receives and processes input data (Stimulus Ambiguity, Attention, Perceptual Bias).
• Learning Constructs: How the consumer forms habits and opinions (Motives, Evaluative Criteria, Brand Comprehension, Decision Mediators, Confidence, and Satisfaction).

C. Output Variables (Measurable Responses)

The consumer’s progressive cognitive and behavioral responses:

1. Attention: Becoming aware of the brand.
2. Brand Comprehension: Understanding what the product does.
3. Attitude: Developing a favorable or unfavorable evaluation.
4. Intention: Developing a conscious plan to buy.
5. Purchase Behavior: The actual financial transaction.

D. Exogenous Variables (External Modifiers)

Variables not directly shown in the core flow that modify outcomes: importance of purchase, consumer personality, financial status, and time pressure.

2. The Engel-Kollat-Blackwell (EKB / CDP) Model

Developed by James Engel, David Kollat, and Roger Blackwell, this model structures consumer decision making around a clear five-stage sequential problem-solving core:

   [ Information Input ]     ──> Ads, Word-of-mouth, Store visits
             │
             ▼
   [ Information Processing] ──> Exposure ──> Attention ──> Comprehension ──> Acceptance ──> Retention
             │
             ▼
   [ Decision Process ]      ──> Need Recognition ──> Search ──> Alternative Evaluation
                                 ──> Purchase ──> Post-Purchase Outcomes
             ▲
             │ influenced by
   [ Environmental Influences ] (Culture, Family, Social Class, Situation)
   [ Individual Differences ]   (Motivation, Personality, Values, Lifestyle)

Core Stages of EKB Model:

1. Information Input: Consumer is exposed to marketing and non-marketing stimuli.
2. Information Processing: Stimuli pass through five cognitive filters: Exposure ightarrow Attention ightarrow Comprehension ightarrow Acceptance/Yielding ightarrow Retention in memory.
3. Decision Process: The 5-stage classic decision core (Need Recognition, Search, Evaluation, Purchase, Post-Purchase).
4. Decision Process Variables & Environmental Influences: Internal factors (beliefs, attitudes) and external forces (family, culture, reference groups) directly shape every stage of the decision.

3. Summary & Exam Review Questions

1. Explain the architecture of the Howard-Sheth Model of consumer behavior. Detail its four main variable sets. (10 Marks)
2. What are the differences between Significative Stimuli, Symbolic Stimuli, and Social Stimuli in the Howard-Sheth framework? (5 Marks)
3. Outline the key components of the Engel-Kollat-Blackwell (EKB) model of consumer decision making. (10 Marks)